We conclude by indicating how this multifunctional view of brain-language relations extends to the realm of language recovery from aphasia, where evidence of the influence of nonlinguistic factors on the reshaping of neural circuitry for aphasia rehabilitation is clearly emerging. Disruption in the ability of persons with aphasia to manipulate semantic knowledge flexibly in the face of changing task demands was found to be eliminated when phonemic cueing was provided [123], highlighting the dissociation between impaired control abilities and preserved stored semantic knowledge. Our concern here finds support in the work of Amunts et al. Each week, you will be given a wider reading task. 1-28. These age-related compensatory mechanisms have been correlated with particular neural changes in hemispheric asymmetry observed with age (e.g., [169, 170]), resulting from changes in gray matter volume and/or white matter integrity (e.g., [167, 171–175]). Early SA data and the grammaticalisation account of the relationship between táki and táa 3.1. Within this architecture, the pre-SMA is assumed to generate an automated word selection bias which is then maintained by the basal ganglia, affecting top-down processing during word selection [122]. Zhang, Y. Subcortical circuitry has also been described as an intersection of language and executive impairment in aphasia, although most studies of thalamic aphasia do not provide behavioral data regarding performance on tests of executive functions. Thus, older adults’ slower processing speed has been argued to negatively affect their picture-naming abilities (e.g., [164]), especially when they are asked to name actions, as contrasted with objects [165, 166]. The findings described above call for an integrative brain-language model that accounts for multifunctionality across shared neural networks [1]. And their decreased sentence processing abilities (lower accuracy and/or slower reaction times) have been argued to be affected by syntactic complexity, low plausibility, decreased predictability, or increased background noise (e.g., [146–155]). However I do not believe that it is completely reliable to the context of it or that it is always multi-functional even though it sometimes can be. Or language change and development? The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper. This is the exciting way in which we can communicate with each other as we change how we speak depending on the relationship we have with the other person. B. Redfern, and J. J. Jaeger, “Lesion analysis of the brain areas involved in language comprehension,”, D. Poeppel and G. Hickok, “Towards a new functional anatomy of language,”, G. Hickok and D. Poeppel, “The cortical organization of speech perception,”, G. V. Pashek and A. L. 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I do not agree that it is always dependent on context for it's meaning though, because there are some things that you would say over text message or social media site but not to someone directly. languages 2.3.1. Under such a framework, linguistic information would be processed through a neural system of component processes, in which region-specific neural configurations contribute to multiple cognitive tasks simultaneously. this was a study done by Howard Giles. Languages. The lens should be directed at the distinct temporal and spatial features underlying functional relations [84, 85], where neuronal groupings cluster in combinations within and outside of cortical networks, to yield specific operations/computations [3]. The Howard Giles theory of CAT would determine this, as his theory showed how individuals adapt aspects of their own language to signal feelings about the person they are conversing with. Such data have clearly stimulated a need to create new models of the neuroanatomy of language, with greater neural and psycholinguistic specificity. [33], who have uncovered a novel organizational architecture of the frontal cortex at the neuronal level, based on a multireceptor analysis of brain tissue. Moreover, and importantly, these frontal networks have also been linked to a number of nonlinguistic functions, including, but not limited to, processing of math operations, mental rotations, and music [52–55]. This circuitry included connections among premotor, prefrontal, and Broca’s cortices, involving previously unexplored neural structures, with a strong left lateralized of cholinergic receptors (M2) in the dorsal and ventral areas 44v and 44d. Speech production was found to activate additional neural networks, including left middle frontal cortex for word retrieval, independently of articulation; left anterior insula for articulatory planning, left putamen, presupplementary motor area, supplementary motor area, and motor cortex for overt speech initiation and execution; and anterior cingulate and bilateral head of caudate nuclei for response suppression during monitoring of speech output. For this paper, we have been exploring and reviewing interactions—both cognitive and neural—between executive system function and language. Controlled retrieval happens as we search for information that may be of relevance,even if only remotely related to the target, when the semantic information in the stimulus is insufficient to help identify the target or when task-relevant information is not activated. Language definitely changes depending on who you are speaking to and what type of situation is. Borrowing from recent developments in the memory literature [188], which emerged, in part, to account for apparent overlaps between the neural substrates mediating “what” and “how” memory functions (e.g., [98, 189, 190]), we propose to adopt a component process framework to language processing. When i am with my friends i speak very informally and use colloquialisms a lot to describe what i mean in a what is seen as a 'normal' way in this generation. Their objective in this treatment was therefore to reduce this inefficiency by shifting the activity to the right pre-SMA and the right lateral frontal region. This is a very enigmatic and interesting statement, Ciara. Billie, can you find any research to support your views on this? [184] demonstrated treatment-based neural reorganization of language functions in posterior persylvian regions. Summary 3. We almost seem to do this unknowingly (or subconsciously, as Giles suggested). You will be required to enter your school email address (this will be kept private - it will not be  posted on the blog). The enormity of the challenge lies, in part, in the difficulties defining the nature of these nonlinguistic contributions and their own neural bases. (2017). Better empirical resolution is now being accomplished through the enhanced level of detail with which temporal and spatial features of language-related brain activation patterns can be examined. Definition of multifunctionality in the Definitions.net dictionary. We propose that this multifunctionality operates in a multidirectional and reciprocal fashion, such that neural networks engaged in language recovery mutually interact with neural supports of nonlinguistic functions so as to give rise to new functional neuroanatomies (i.e., newly established or newly reinforced neural networks) in the neurologically compromised brain. Price, “A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading,”, D. Tomasi and N. D. Volkow, “Resting functional connectivity of language networks: characterization and reproducibility,”, A. D. Friederici, “Broca’s area and the ventral premotor cortex in language: functional differentiation and specificity,”, S. A. Kotz and M. Schwartze, “Cortical speech processing unplugged: a timely subcortico-cortical framework,”, O. David, B. Maess, K. Eckstein, and A. D. Friederici, “Dynamic causal modeling of subcortical connectivity of language,”, B. Crosson, “Thalamic mechanisms in language: a reconsideration based on recent findings and concepts,”, C. J. This is useful though, as the ability to adapt to context is something that will help you in your career and future life. In sum, results from neuroimaging studies and studies on aphasia, despite their methodological flaws and inherent limitations, converge on the following notion: semantic processing and its neural bases do not exist in isolation from constant and dynamic interaction with executive system function and its neural bases. Stomping in silence: Conceptualizing trampling effects on soils in polar tundra Tuomi et al. This review paper presents converging evidence from studies of brain damage and longitudinal studies of language in aging which supports the following thesis: the neural basis of language can best be understood by the concept of neural multifunctionality. In neuroimaging studies exploring the neural circuits associated with lexical retrieval among older adults, for example, frontal bilateral involvement has been linked to action and object naming tasks and certain list generation tasks [174–176], with some variability in the particular brain regions implicated, based on task type used in each study (e.g., [177]). Whereas, if two friends were conversing, the language used is more likely to be colloquial instead of formal because one's friend does not obtain a higher status, so one should feel relaxed and feel as though they do not need to alter the way in which they speak within their social friendship group. People with SD showed good control, resulting in item consistency across different task demands, as opposed to persons with aphasia, who performed consistently only when task demands were kept constant (e.g., [97]). The precise nature of the control processes associated with these regions is currently debated, with some arguing that the left inferior frontal gyrus (LIFG) mediates selection rather than retrieval [110], while others claim that both selection and retrieval are supported by the region [104]. Heinze, K. Lutz, M. Kanowski, and L. Jäncke, “Cortical activations during the mental rotation of different visual objects,”, B. Maess, S. Koelsch, T. C. Gunter, and A. D. Friederici, “Musical syntax is processed in Broca’s area: an MEG study,”, K. Podzebenko, G. F. Egan, and J. D. G. Watson, “Widespread dorsal stream activation during a parametric mental rotation task, revealed with functional magnetic resonance imaging,”, J. V. Baldo and N. F. Dronkers, “Neural correlates of arithmetic and language comprehension: a common substrate?”, R. T. Constable, K. R. Pugh, E. Berroya et al., “Sentence complexity and input modality effects in sentence comprehension: an fMRI study,”, U. Hasson, H. C. Nusbaum, and S. L. Small, “Repetition suppression for spoken sentences and the effect of task demands,”, U. Noppeney, J. Phillips, and C. Price, “The neural areas that control the retrieval and selection of semantics,”, W. W. Graves, T. J. Grabowski, S. Mehta, and P. Gupta, “The left posterior superior temporal gyrus participates specifically in accessing lexical phonology,”, G. Hickok, K. Okada, and J. T. Serences, “Area Spt in the human planum temporale supports sensory-motor integration for speech processing,”, Y. Grodzinsky, “The picture of the linguistic brain: How sharp can it be? A. Schneider, M. Daneman, D. R. Murphy, and S. K. See, “Listening to discourse in distracting settings: the effects of aging,”, A. Wingfield, J. E. Peelle, and M. Grossman, “Speech rate and syntactic complexity as multiplicative factors in speech comprehension by young and older adults,”, G. DeDe, K. Kemtes, D. Caplan, and G. Waters, “The relationship between age, verbal working memory, and language comprehension,”, G. Waters and D. Caplan, “The relationship between age, processing speed, working memory capacity, and language comprehension,”, M. Goral, M. Clark-Cotton, A. Spiro, L. K. Obler, J. Verkuilen, and M. L. Albert, “The contribution of set switching and working memory to sentence processing in older adults,”, D. Caplan, G. Dede, G. Waters, J. Michaud, and Y. Tripodis, “Effects of age, speed of processing, and working memory on comprehension of sentences with relative clauses,”, D. Cahana-Amitay, M. L. Albert, E. A. Ojo et al., “Effects of hypertension and diabetes on sentence comprehension in aging,”, T. A. Salthouse, “The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition,”, P. A. Boyle, R. S. Wilson, J. I wonder what you make of the idea given in the quote that language is multi-functional? It has been proposed, for example, that the LIFG suppresses previously presented relevant semantic information, whereas the temporoparietal networks, in concert with LIFG, help retrieve less dominant semantic information to match task-relevant information [112]. Advances in technology allowing closer examination of brain activity in real-time, improvements in the experimental design applied to neuropsychological studies, and the development of psycholinguistically motivated theories of language have opened novel and exciting ways of exploring the functional neuroanatomy of language. It has been proposed, then, that the neural substrates of the left inferior frontal gyrus (LIFG) specifically mediate selection among items that have already been retrieved (e.g., [131]), affecting even sentence production tasks in which the probe refers to several propositions [132]. Because damage to lateral portions of the left prefrontal cortex has also been found to lead to language-related executive control deficits, including impaired verbal fluency [86], poor monitoring of verbal information over short periods [87], poor concept shifting [88], and difficulties with complex planning [89], attempts have been made, especially over the past two decades to understand these neurofunctional interdependencies in the healthy brain, examining executive effects on specific language functions, such as sentence processing and lexical retrieval. Thompson-Schill and colleagues [127], for example, reported that patients with left inferior prefrontal lesions implicating neural substrates in Brodmann’s BA 44, but not those with prefrontal lesions excluding these neural substrates or patients with right hemisphere damage, show very poor performance on noun selection tasks with high competing demands, arguing for a selection among competitors deficit. Surgical removal and proper name retrieval,”, C. Papagno, “Naming and the role of the uncinate fasciculus in language function,”, K. H. Kho, P. Indefrey, P. Hagoort, C. W. M. van Veelen, P. C. van Rijen, and N. F. Ramsey, “Unimpaired sentence comprehension after anterior temporal cortex resection,”, S. Moritz-Gasser, G. Herbet, and H. Duffau, “Mapping the connectivity underlying multimodal (verbal and non-verbal) semantic processing: a brain electrostimulation study,”, D. Caplan and G. S. Waters, “Verbal working memory and sentence comprehension,”, M. Makuuchi, J. Bahlmann, A. Anwander, and A. D. Friederici, “Segregating the core computational faculty of human language from working memory,”, M. Makuuchi and A. D. Friederici, “Hierarchical functional connectivity between the core language system and the working memory system,”, S. Brown, A. R. Laird, P. Q. Pfordresher, S. M. Thelen, P. Turkeltaub, and M. Liotti, “The somatotopy of speech: phonation and articulation in the human motor cortex,”, M. H. Davis, A. M. di Betta, M. J. E. Macdonald, and M. G. Gaskell, “Learning and consolidation of novel spoken words,”, Z. One of the most influential proposals, already incorporated into current aphasia recovery studies (e.g., [37, 38]), is the dorsal/ventral model put forth by Hickok and Poeppel [12, 36]. For example if I (a student) were to speak to my head teacher in a meeting, my language would change more formally and I would be more likely to use standard English, rather than colloquialisms that I would use when speaking to my friends or family. By way of example, we consider effects of executive system functions on aspects of semantic processing among persons with and without aphasia, as well as the interaction of executive and language functions among older adults. The concept of ecosystem multifunctionality has emerged from two distinct research fields. A current consensus among researchers working in the field of language in aging is that language functions among older adults increasingly rely on support networks outside traditional core language networks, extending to right homologous counterparts (e.g., [167]). In certain situations the same sentence can mean something completely different. Nonetheless, in the most recent models of the functional neuroanatomy of language (e.g., [21, 22, 34, 35, 65]), efforts to identify several neural interfaces among language, cognitive, motor, and sensory processes have been made. A distinction can be drawn between anterior ventral portions of the left inferior prefrontal regions and its posterior dorsal region, which are assumed to subserve controlled used of semantic and phonologic information, respectively (e.g., [94, 108, 109]). Crosson et al. The range of verbs meaning ‘to say’ and their properties in the SA substrate languages 2.4. Convergence and divergence are used so that you can 'fit in' with the people around you, whatever language/accent they may have. IFG projections, however, have also been found to be involved in processing meaningful speech (e.g., [114, 115]) and so may not be uniquely specialized to mediate semantic control processes. Some findings have indicated that recruitment of temporoparietal networks is also necessary for semantic control [107, 111] but that their role is distinct from those of the LIFG networks [99]. What does multifunctionality mean? A. Barresi, M. Nicholas, L. T. Connor, L. K. Obler, and M. L. Albert, “Semantic degradation and lexical access in age-related naming failures,”, A. J. Mackay, L. T. Connor, M. L. Albert, and L. K. Obler, “Noun and verb retrieval in healthy aging,”, C. M. Morrison, K. W. Hirsh, and G. B. Duggan, “Age of acquisition, ageing, and verb production: normative and experimental data,”, L. T. Connor, A. Spiro, L. K. Obler, and M. L. Albert, “Change in object naming ability during adulthood,”, E. S. Cross and D. M. Burke, “Do alternative names block young and older adults’ retrieval of proper names?”, L. Mortensen, A. S. Mayer, and G. W. Humphreys, “Age-related slowing of object naming: a review,”, M. Goral, A. Spiro, M. L. Albert, L. K. Obler, and L. T. Connor, “Change in lexical retrieval skills in adulthood,”, L. K. Obler, M. Nicholas, M. L. Albert, and S. Woodward, “On comprehension across the adult lifespan,”, L. K. Obler, D. Fein, M. Nicholas, and M. L. Albert, “Auditory comprehension and aging: decline in syntactic processing,”, K. A. Kemtes and S. Kemper, “Younger and older adults’ on-line processing of syntactically ambiguous sentences,”, B. The sensitivity of persons with aphasia to executive task demands has also been demonstrated in nonverbal domains, including difficulties in nonroutine usages of everyday objects and improved performance under more structured task conditions accompanied by verbal and visual cues (e.g., [125, 126]). These mechanisms are assumed to support intentional functions, with intention referring to the ability to select and initiate an action among several competing options (as opposed to attention involving the selection of a stimulus among competing stimuli and further processing that stimulus) [27]. Language: DE; EN; 中文 ; Who we are. For example, four corticothalamic and thalamic-cortical mechanisms have been identified as crucial “executive” supports for language functions, at least at the word level: (1) frontal cortex’s selective engagement of cortical areas in an “attentive” state relevant to task performance via the nucleus reticularis, (2) transfer of information from one cortical area to another through corticothalamocortical relays, shifting attention as necessary, (3) optimizing focus on task-relevant information through corticothalamocortical mechanisms of feedback to ensure, for instance, processing accuracy, and (4) word selection during the expression of a concept whereby signal-to-noise ratio increases around the selected word, mediated by a basal ganglia loop [27].

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